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Women's Decision-Making in Abusive Relationships: A Study to Prevent Violence Against Women

by Tonia L. Nicholls, Ph.D. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and Michael Smith Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow Department of Psychiatry, UBC and British Columbia Institute Against Family Violence; William J. Koch, Ph.D., R. Psych. Clinical Professor Department of Psychiatry, UBC; and P. Randall Kropp, Ph.D. R. Psych. Clinical, Consulting and Forensic Psychologist British Columbia Institute Against Family Violence

Domestic Violence is Chronic

Domestic violence is typically recurring and the severity and/or frequency of abuse often increase over the duration of an abusive relationship. Disturbingly, many women report they are battered repeatedly before they seek assistance; some women never leave their abuser; and a large proportion of women who leave an abusive partner return to the relationship only to be revictimized. Moreover, the rate of re-offence for batterers, even for men who have participated in treatment is higher than for other violent offenders. Given the repetitive nature of domestic violence, the seemingly logical response is to encourage an abused woman to end her relationship.

Why do Battered Women Stay?

Since wife abuse was first recognized as a massive social problem, the dominant cultural script has been to direct women to leave their abusive partners. A failure to understand why battered women stay in abusive relationships has fuelled public misperceptions and hampered the provision of effective services to abused women. Within this narrow ideology, women who do not leave their abusers, or who return to abusive partners, have been pathologized (Browne, 1993). Early work, for instance, attempted to explain domestic violence as fulfilling the masochistic needs of the victims (Snell et al., 1964). Recent research has given us a much clearer understanding of why women stay in abusive relationships. This research has largely dispelled the myth of a battered woman typology.

Contrary to stereotypes, we know that battered women are a heterogeneous group with respect to personality traits and demographic characteristics. Women who remain in violent relationships are not demonstrably atypical of women in the general population. Research has demonstrated unequivocally that domestic violence touches the lives of women from all ethnic and social strata. Women who are educated, employed, and highly competent, as well as women who struggle due to marginalization (e.g., because of age, physical disability, financial limitations, or ethnic minority status) experience spouse abuse. The most compelling research results suggest that the psychological effects of abuse, as opposed to personality traits result in women tolerating abuse (Rhodes & McKenzie, 1998). Admittedly, there is still little consensus regarding the most salient predictors of battered women's decision-making, there is, however, increasing scientific evidence that both internal and external factors inhibit women from ending their abuse. A woman's decision to leave or stay with an abusive partner, and her choices about how to cope with the abuse if she remains in the relationship, appear to be influenced by a combination of social, economic, environmental and psychological factors. A thorough review of the issues impacting abused women's decision making is beyond the scope of this article, however, we will review briefly some of the most pertinent scientific findings.

The decision to leave an abusive partner can be difficult and time-consuming. Many women report a commitment to ending the violence, while maintaining the relationship. Many abused women are more emotionally competent and educated than their abusers. Often the woman carries the majority of the responsibilities in the household. These status differences can lead to women feeling a responsibility to care for the abuser. In other cases, the woman may not be prepared to label what she is experiencing as abuse. Friends, family or professionals pressing her to leave her partner may alienate her; ultimately placing her in greater danger. Emotional ties with her abuser, and grief over the abuse and/or the prospect of ending the relationship may inhibit an abused woman's escape from an unhealthy or dangerous relationship.

Many women also report that fear of future or more severe abuse prevents them from terminating abusive relationships. Paradoxically, research indicates that attempts to end abusive relationships place women at their greatest risk for escalating abuse, serious violence and/or lethal harm (see Coleman, 1997). "When the male realizes that his partner intends to abandon him, and his usual methods of control no longer are effective, he is likely to resort to more extreme acts of violence" (Coleman, 1997, p.424). Although stalking initially was recognized as a result of obsessional behaviour involving celebrities (e.g., movie stars, politicians) the most common victim of stalking is that involving former partners in abusive relationships. Moreover, (ex)intimate relationship stalkers engage in more dangerous behaviours than non-intimate relationship stalkers.

A woman's emotional and mental health status may also impede her efforts to end the abuse. The pre-abuse and post-abuse psychological functioning of battered women indicates many spouse abuse victims experience a decline in their mental health status. Women who suffer the most extreme abuse may suffer the greatest associated emotional distress. Posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and substance abuse are more common among women who have been abused and likely limit an abused woman's ability to leave an abuser or otherwise cope effectively. A woman's mental health status may also negatively affect the accuracy of her perception of danger or risk of violence in her abusive relationship. Conceivably, a woman who underestimates her partner's potential to cause her serious harm is less likely to end the relationship or seek assistance to cope with the abuse.

Finally, cultural, social and economic realities also serve as obstacles for women attempting to end abusive relationships. The social context is critical to understanding a woman's coping in an abusive relationship, as well as the resources she has available to protect herself. Although there is ongoing debate in the literature with regard to the differential influence of psychological factors versus social influences, it seems likely that social factors are important in understanding abused women's decision-making. Briefly, women are socialized to preserve the family, to nurture others, and place the needs of their children and partners above their own. Moreover, many abused women lack the education or employment experience necessary to become financially independent. Immigrant, elderly and disabled women may face even more of these challenges.

Battered Women's Coping Strategies

In addition to an increased appreciation of why women remain in abusive relationships research is beginning to alert us to the formal and informal strategies abused women use to cope with their partners' violence. Contrary to early theories which characterized women who remained in abusive relationships as passive victims, clinicians, researchers and advocates are coming to recognize that even within the stifling emotional, financial and physical confines of an abusive relationship, women are active agents of change. Battered women demonstrate ingenuity, resilience, and creativity in response to the abuse. Behaviours that were once viewed as maladaptive (e.g., passivity) are now being reconsidered within the context of an abusive relationship and redefined as "adaptive responses to a maladaptive situation." In addition, we have a better appreciation of the many informal/private coping strategies women use to deal with abusive partners. We also know that many women seek assistance from formal and informal sources.

Although many women speak about their abuse there is a large discrepancy between the abuse experienced and the services received. Because women's help-seeking may be severely restricted in abusive relationships many women are not receiving the services they require. We propose that there is theoretical and empirical support for several factors that impact women's decision-making in abusive relationships. We have classified these items into five categories: (1) nature of the abuse; (2) characteristics of the victim; (3) characteristics of the abuser; (4) characteristics of the relationship; and (5) the social context in which the violence occurs. We will be initiating research to test this model in the summer of 2002.

Project Description - Research Volunteers Needed

What is the purpose of the study?

In a research project about to start in the lower mainland, we will be developing a better understanding of how abuse impacts women's emotional health, and how despite adverse circumstances, women in abusive relationships take steps to improve their lives. The study will identify factors that either assist or impede women from seeking help and /or leaving an abusive relationship.

Who can participate?

We are looking for women between the ages of 19 and 65 years old who have been abused in a relationship lasting at least 3 months (can be a past or current relationship) who would be willing to take part in the research.

Participants will be eligible to receive free psychological counselling from staff at the Anxiety Disorders Unit at the University of British Columbia Hospital. Interested participants will be referred, either by project research staff or their own physician. Women who are referred from the project will be provided with free one-to-one psychological therapy relevant to their trauma exposure. This typically involves between 6 and 30 therapy sessions.

What is involved if I choose to participate / if I refer my clients?

Women will be asked to take part in two interviews (6 months apart). The woman will choose the locations of the interviews to suit her safety and needs.

The first interview (1-2 hrs) is intended to collect information about the woman, her partner, their relationship and her socio-economic circumstances (e.g., culture, number of children, employment). The woman will receive $20 cash for the first interview.

Six months later, she will be invited to complete a follow-up interview.

The purpose of the second interview is to learn how women are coping with an abusive partner or ex-partner (e.g., avoiding discussing 'sensitive' topics, counselling, obtaining a restraining order, leaving). This interview will be shorter (e.g., 1hr). The woman will receive $20 cash for the second interview.

Women who have expertise in mental health care, risk assessment and family relations will conduct the interviews.

The identity of women participating in the research, and the information discussed during the interview is strictly confidential. Information from the research will be presented in such a way that it would be impossible to identify individual participants.

Contact us for more information or to Participate

Phone: 604-244-8183
email: studyat4womenshealth.org
online at: www.4womenshealth.org
Important: An abuser can trace your Internet use. For information on how to prevent tracking visit - www.hotpeachpages.org/paths/surfsavy.html & The American Bar Association

References Browne, A. (1993). Violence against women by male partners: Prevalence, outcomes, and policy implications. American Psychologist, 48, 1077-1087.
Coleman, F. L. (1997). Stalking behavior and the cycle of domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 12, 420-433.
Rhodes, N. R., & McKenzie, E. B. (1998). Why do battered women stay?: Three decades of research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 3, 391-406.
Snell, J. E., Rosenwald, R. J., & Robey, A. (1964). The wifebeater's wife. Archives of General Psychiatry, 11, 107-112.
Turner, S. F. & Shapiro, C. H. (1986). Battered women: Mourning the death of a relationship. Social Work, 31, 372-376.

This research is funded by:

Lions Gate Healthcare Research Foundation
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada
Michael Smith Foundation for Healthcare Research

Project Partners:

Surjeet Sidhu
Maureen Gabriel
The BC Institute Against Family Violence
University of British Columbia
North Shore Crisis Services Society
Mental Health, Law and Policy Institute, Simon Fraser University